Fruit and seed formation

Development of the fruit and seeds started after pollination occurs. If pollination does not occur, then the interest will get old and die. Apomistik in plants, pollination stimulus alone is sufficient to initiate embryo development and alleged that the pollen has been providing substance or hormone which stimulates growth of embryonic development. Auxin spraying on the flowers are not pollinated partenokarpi will produce fruit (without seeds). In some plants, particularly seeds of many species (stony fruit), gibberellic acid acts as a substitute for auxin. In these species is known that pollen produces gibberellins and not auxin.
a. Fruit and seed development ofEarly stage in the development of fruits and seeds is rapid cleavage without much enlargement. The main factor because of the involvement of many cytokines are produced by a triploid or pentaploid endosperm are growing at this stage. Various tissues of the parent plant, such as the ovaries, the basic interest and sometimes of the flower tube may be involved in the formation of fruit. After the stage of cell division, the next growth phase is mainly carried out with cell enlargement. From several studies suggested that this is caused by auskin produced in the seeds. If the seeds are removed from the developing fruit, fruit development is discontinued, but the development can be continued if given auxin. J.P. Nitch, a French physiologist, showed that the strawberries and cucumbers, its development depends on auxin coming from ovulus. Some of the fruits provide a response to administration than to auxin gibberellin.
b. Fruit ripeningFruit ripening process involving many chemical and physiological changes are complex, involving taste, size, color, texture, and aroma. In the process of fruit ripening can occur conversion of starch into sugar and acid-free, increasing pectinase which will soften and damage the cell wall, increasing variety of pigments such as anthocyanins, as well as loss of pigment khlorofil. Stout or stimulated changes caused by ethylene produced by the fruit itself.Production of ethylene by the fruit has been found at the time of storage. Ethylene produced by each fruit, have a cumulative effect and stimulate other fruits to mature faster and will inadvertently produce more ethylene. Ripening process in fruit storage in bulk, would result in the autokatalik cause the fruit will get enough water and were given good conditions for germination, seeds still will not germinate. Dormancy can be caused by the formation of chemical compounds inhibiting the grain surface, the lack of stimulating substances that are important or caused by a hard seed coat so that water and oxygen can not enter. This dormancy can be lost in various ways such as by freezing, extending the cooling period, extending the exposure to the cold state, providing high humidity in the presence of oxygen, perform intensive heating (burnt), through the gut of birds or mammals, mechanical (broken) or left covered with mold. If the conditions necessary to eliminate dormancy is running, the embryo will begin to make gibberellin and cytokinin are required to outperform the effect of inhibiting the growth of employment (growth inhibitor), so pertumbuhanpun can begin. If paad when the water is given, then bijipun will germinate.
c. Germination conditions LngkunganThe first factor is required for germination are water, oxygen, temperature, and light. Water is the most important factor, because the seeds are in a dehydrated state. Seeds normally contain water approximately 5-20% of total weight and must absorb some water before germination begins. The early stages of germination is water uptake quickly called imbibisi. There are indications that up to a certain critical moisture content (different for different seeds and species) growth will not occur If the water are removed before the water reaches a crisis point
achieved, the beans will not be damaged, but if the limit point is passed and the metabolism has begun, the seeds were germinated when dried it will die back.Oxygen is essential for germination. Metabolism at an early stage of germination may be carried out anaerobically, but will quickly be converted into aerobic after the seed coat bursts and oxygen diffuses into the

Development of the embryo

a. GrowThe zygote is the first cell of the generation of sporophytes that have maximum potential for growth, because he was able to grow into a whole new organism. After one division, each daughter cell will decrease the tendency morfogenetiknya, because each daughter cell can only produce a limited part of the organism and has led to the formation of a specific morphology. However, where the two daughter cells were separated, each cell will regain its capacity to grow into an organism. The reduced capacity of the two daughter cells derived from the zygote is caused by each daughter cell now inseparable, but under the influence of other cells are closely associated with him by ties of protoplasm (plasmodesmata).With increasing complexity of organisms, related to the growth capacity of each cell will be reduced in line with the influence of all cells and tissues surrounding them.

b. Embryo growthNot long after forming, the zygote begins to grow rapidly and develop into an embryo, which in turn will rest until the seeds germinate. Development of embryo and endosperm growth preceded the endosperm is a network that will feed the embryo during its growth. Embryo growth patterns differ from one plant to another plant, but the explanation in general will greatly help us. The beginning of zygote cell division would produce two cells, one of them will develop into an embryo and the other will be the suspensor. Suspensor regulate attachment and orientation of the embryo and endosperm pushed into the future that will give him food. Embryonic development through the stages globuiar, heart, and torpedo, so to speak because of his show these forms. Two indentations on the heart phase will develop into cotyledon and cotyledon stage embryos have developed radicle (root meristem) and meristem "shoot" (shoot shoot). With the growth of the embryo, the endosperm be digested because it is used to feed the embryo. This process continues until no remaining endosperm and all the remaining material was transferred to the cotyledons as well as beans. Other alternatives such as corn, endosperm remains in the seed until germination occurs.
c. Growth of In-Vitro EmbryoIn 1930, P. White, an American physiologist has succeeded in developing a medium for culturing embryos to the size of the initial stages of corn (heart stage) out of its mother. Recently known that the endosperm is the most likely source of nutrients for embryo growth and the addition of coconut milk into a medium of embryos has been possible it is still at an early stage of development were cultured and successful. Problems arising from the use of coconut milk in a medium is a composition of coconut water is very complex and largely unknown. Coconut water is rich in nitrogen, sugar, various growth substances and hormones as well as many other compounds senyaw with a variety of physiological activities.

d. Developments in Cell Culture and Tissue CultureIn 1950, Steward laboratories obtain rapid advances in tissue and cell culturing business of some crops, especially carrots, using a basal medium plus coconut milk White. Then by way of transferring it to the appropriate medium, either solid or liquid, such cells are normally grown produce embryos, form the root and shoot and eventually became a full grown plants and flowers. Clearly banya cells derived from various sources on the plant, if treated well and given the opportunity and right, can transform itself from the limitations of the environmental properties of its parent to zygote is unique and can carry out embryogenesis or the like, producing a crop intact. The cells are derived from plant partsmature and undifferentiated (stem, roots, etc.), the response is very limited and requires special treatment. Capacity owned by the zygote will still exist in the cell and will not be lost as a result of cleavage.In the development of an organism, morphogenetic tendency of the cells will be closed and will reopen when the cells become free from karingan and cultured in appropriate medium, need attention in an effort to induce and maintain cell growth on a regular basis.

e. Totipotensi plant cellsSomatic cells from different parts of the plant, if given a good and proper condition, can develop into a whole new plant. It is called totipotensi, because they have full potential to grow, which is owned by the zygote. Although not all plant cells can perform pemudaan return (rejuvination) in this way, because some of them have been pegged to a pattern of events can not be returned (irreversible), due to the deposition of cell wall materials are solid and insoluble. Nevertheless all plant tissues contain totipotent cells.The above is a manifestation that shows that every living plant cells, in which carry the complete genetic information is essential to produce a plant. Loss of ability in the process of development is not due to loss of information from these cells, but reduced ability to utilize information. So each cell actually has a full capacity or potential to grow morfogentik as owned by the zygote, but in the process of development of the capacity for growth must be controlled for the sake of order and harmony.Totipotensi properties of plant cells, especially in the cells of meristematic tissue is developing into a wider field of research in in-vitro are very popular today with somatic embryogenesis pembakan. Somatic embryogenesis is diffrerensiasi haploid cells or diploid development to become a whole plant. In the cells that are still absolutes almost all groups of cells can be combined to form a new subuah meristem tissue that can differentiate menbentuk a whole new plant. At a more mature plant tissues, only the epidermal cells that can develop menadi embryo (Salisburry & Ross, 1992). Further said that in the mature plant tissues, embryos genenesis can only happen through the callus. Opportunities embrygenesis of somatic cells of reproductive tissues sepersi flower bud, ovule, anthers much higher than the cotyledons with callus from stem cells, buds or leaf buds.

Sexual Reproduction in Higher Plants-Garnet formation

Reproductive process begins with the formation and development of male gametes and female gametes. Below will not talk about how male and female gametes formed in the flowers, but keep in mind that the male gamete produced in anthera (juice boxes), while female gametes produced in the ovaries. Many plants form a good anthera and carpels together on every flower meristem, resulting in a flower called a perfect flower or flowers hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers. Some plants produce two types of flowers are flowers that produce only anthera only (staminat flowers) or only carpels alone (pistilat interest). Plants monoecious (monocious) produces two types of flowers on one tree, while the marriage of two plants (dicious) only produced one flower jensi on one tree. 

The fact that the stamens are always developing earlier than the middle of the meristem than the carpels, presumably due to differences in levels of growth regulators or hormones derived from or directed to the center of the meristem, it is very important in controlling sex expression in flowers. Provision of natural and synthetic auxins sprayed on plants monocious, has increased the proportion of female flowers. Auxin has led to the development of female flowers although primordianya genetically prepared for the male flowers, while gibberellins give the opposite effect. Once development of the ovary has begun, then the development will be inhibited stamennya. Homeless on two plants, sex change is possible. If the flowers are produced male gametes and female gametes, the pollination or pollination can occur which subsequently result of fusion of male and female gamete gametes would produce zygotes.
 

 

 In some plants even though there is pollination, but fertilization can not occur. Reduction division in plants is not the case megaspore mother cell and meiosis and embryos develop without fertilization. This is an example apomiksis, namely reproduction without going through the merger of gametes.

ANALYSIS OF GROWTH

The pattern of growth throughout the life cycle of plants is characterized by a growth function that is called the Sigmoid curve-shaped growth curve of S. Quantitative study of the growth that has been accepted in general is dry weight, both of whole plants, or parts thereof. Dynamics and growth analysis mainly aims to measure the ability of plants as producers fotosintat (assimilat) expressed by dry weight. It is based on the fact that 90% of the dry plants derived from the photosynthesis. Basic concepts and physiological implications of the growth analysis is relatively simple and has been used extensively. 

Leaf is the main organ of photosynthesis which in turn will develop biomass (dry weight) of plants. Thus, the growth in the analysis only two variables was observed that dry weight and leaf area measured at certain intervals. Observation time interval is usually 2-3 days for fewer number of plants or 1-2 weeks for more number of plants. 

Measurement of leaf area can be done in various ways including:• the use of linear analysis of leaf area regeresi = a + b (pxl), use formula leaves; leaf area = leaf length (p) x width of the leaf (l) x constant (c).• The use of leaf projection method with the formula: leaf area = A / B x Z, where a = b = slope, p = leaf length, leaf width l =, c = constant, A = weight of leaf projection, B = weight of standard paper , and Z = area of ​​standard paper.• The use of millimeter paper, leaves in the picture on graph paper so that the leaf area can be calculated by summing all the boxes of milliliters in the projected image of leaves.• Area meter: all dirompes leaves, placed on the conveyor belt of the area meter - wide can be read• Use of electrical equipment such as leaf area meter, photoelectric, Canopy analyzer and so on, can be read directly on the leaf area. 

Plant physiologists in general to analyze the growth of a plant community because it shows the overall results of the plant, both the economic and biological results. Aanalisis plant growth usually aims to determine and explain the variation seen in the crop caused by genetic variables and environmental variables that affect plant growth. Data of observations of variable-variable observations can be used as a reference in designing the system settings that will improve crop plants photosynthesize.

Growth analysis components that many do is: (1) plant leaf area index (LAI), leaf area ratio (NLD), relative leaf growth rate (LPDR), leaf mass area (MSD), specific leaf weight (BDS) , Lajua net assimilation (LAN), rate of planting tumbub (LTP), and rate the relative tumbub (LTR).

Crop Growth Rate (LTP = LGR) and Relative Growth Rate
The growth rate of plant dry weight is expressed in the whole plant (g / plant / day). The more common measurement is the rate of crop growth is the growth rate of crop dry weight per unit area of ​​land within one unit of time is expressed in g. m-2.hari-1. In the mathematical calculation is expressed as dw / dt. Classical approach is to calculate the growth rate of an average crop for the time period between two successive sampling times. 

A concept analysis of pertumbuha for the initial phase of growth is the relative growth rate (LTR) is the dry weight increase per unit dry weight that has been assimilated into the plant, mathematically: LTR = 1 / w. dw / dt 

Leaf Area Index and Leaf Rate Unit 

Watson (1947) apply a concept of leaf area as a measure of the ability to crop cultivation in the determination of Leaf Area Index (LAI). ILD is the green leaf area (not age) per unit area of ​​land.At the individual plant, leaf area index is the ration between the leaves with a broad leaf stands or projection. Unit leaf rate is defined as an increase in plant dry weight per unit time per unit area of ​​leaf. Unit leaf rate are often called net assimilation rate (LAN) or Net assimilation rate (LAB). LAN can be viewed as a measure of the efficiency of each unit area of ​​leaf photosynthesis to increase the plant dry weight. LAN can be expressed mathematically by the formula = 1/ld LAN. dw / dt. LAN on average during the sampling period. 

If the LAN is the average size of net CO2 exchange rate union in the plant canopy leaf area, then multiplying the LAN with ILD be obtained LTP. So that LTP = LAN x ILD.LAN highest value when the plants are still small and most of the leaves are exposed to direct sunlight. LAN is likely to decline at the time of leaf area increment, and is unable to perform photosynthesis is optimal. Thus there will be a time when LTP no longer responsive to an increase in ILD. LAI reached a maximum at the time of LTP called Optimum ILD. Further increase in leaf area resulted in an increase in ILD, the leaves will overlap with each other than from the LAN to decline. LAN such impairment will result in decreased growth rate. ILD during LTP or LTR called ILD Criticism began to decline. 

Leaf area ratio (NLD) 

Net assimilation rate as a parameter analysis of the growth can be attributed to the relative growth rate over the leaf area ratio (NLD). NLD is a specific leaf area to form the whole plant and leaf area and is calculated based on total plant dry weight. The relationship between the LTP with the LTR LAN through the NLD mathematically is:LTR = LAN x NLD 

Analysis of Growth, CO2 Fixation and Growth of Plant Cultivation
Plant biomass is the result of accumulation of carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis asimilat during growth. The process of photosynthesis is the absorption of solar radiation energy through the reduction of CO2 with H2O on a subsequently backfilled by plant tissues produce biomass storage. Thus, the factors that affect plant biomass is the amount and efficiency of absorption of solar radiation in the process of CO2 fixation. 

Leaves are the main organs of plants to perform photosynthesis process in CO2 fixation. With the development and condition of the maximum possible rate of growth of leaves of plants.In the analysis of plant growth, the main parameters used in assessing the growth rate of plants is the leaf area, leaf developmental state of plant biomass. Therefore the further discussion will try to see the relationship between the analysis of growth and CO2 fixation in photosynthesis. 

Leaves broad and Plant Growth 

Leaves as the main organ of photosynthesis should be able to efficiently absorb light radiation to support growth towards better productivity. Plant leaves usually emerge from the embryo or meristem tissue of the stem or branch, especially in annual crops (perennial). On annual crops (annual), especially those bred in the generative, the first leaves develop from the embryo (seed) da is small throughout the growth cycle, allowing greater absorption of solar radiation sebahagian generate heat energy (sensible energy). 

In the class of C4 plants (class of efficient plants) tend to generate growth in the early development of the leaf is more dominant. This allows more efficient utilization of solar radiation. In agronomic practices such conditions can be manipulated through the narrow spacing settings to improve the soil so that the closure of anggot absorption of solar radiation is higher. 

Agriculture is basically associated with increased plant efficiency in the use of solar radiation on photosynthesis. In the cultivation of seasonal crops of cereals group, leaf development was initially increased at a rate of exponential growth, but the relatively small size of the initial leaf causes the absorption of solar radiation is relatively low. Further development of leaf area increase was followed by increased absorption of solar light energy (Fig. 90). Development of leaf area halted after the plants start flowering ((Gardner, Pearce, and Mitchell, 1985).
At the beginning of individual plant growth, exponential growth rate and expressed as relative growth rate (LTR). LTR in early plant growth is high, but then will continue to decrease regularly with the LTR can not be used as a crop in the field, but can be applied to the assessment of plant growth rate in the first few weeks of plant growth. 

Subsequent plant growth will result in the leaves of the plants will shade each other so ineffective sebahagian leaf photosynthesis. In 1947, Watson introduced the concept of leaf area as a measure of productive crops on cultivated plants called Lear Area Index (LAI) or leaf area index (LAI). ILD crops increased from zero at the beginning of growth and reached its peak in mid-age of the plant, then declined sharply at the phase of aging. Before the decline in middle age plants ILD, ILD is relatively constant because of the balance between the rate of leaf senescence and the rate of formation of new leaves. ILD is generally highest in crops planted at a distance of about 5.0 are common. The highest LAI value of the researchers on corn between 3.9 to 5.0, the peanuts from 4 to 4.5 and 7.0 on cassava (Goldsworthy and Fisher, 1984). 

Canopy of plants that have a high value of ILD in young leaves. At the canopy top has a high rate of CO2 and translocate sebahagian asimilat to actively growing plant parts. The increase in dry weight of leaf area per time unity is called unit leaf rate or net assimilation rate (LAN). The rate of leaf or LAN unit is a measure of the average net CO2 exchange per unit leaf area in the plant canopy, the LAN can be viewed as a measure of the efficiency of photosynthesis per leaf area through increased growth. phases of plant growth is a phase difference of potential photosynthesis of a plant that is actually given by the ILD, so that the LAN is expected to influence the environment during different periods of plant life. 

ENZYMES

Living cells is dependent chemical factories of energy that must follow the laws of chemistry. Chemical reactions that take place in living cells are collectively known as metabolism. Thousands of reaction takes place in each cell, so that your metabolism is a process that impressive. Plants produce a number of complex compounds called secondary metabolites, which may serve to protect the other parts. Plants also produce vitamins that are important to the plant itself, animals, and humans. Besides plants produce a hormone that communicates various parts in controlling and coordinating the development.

Some reactions to form large molecules such as rice, cellulose, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids. Formation of large molecules from small molecules called anabolism, and the process requires energy input. Catabolism is the breakdown of large molecules into small molecules and the process releases energy. Respiration is the process of primary catabolism in all cells that release energy, which involves the decomposition of the oxidation of the sugar producing CO2 and H2O. 

Anabolism and catabolism to form metabolic pathways, which convert compound A to B, then B to C, C to D, and so on to set up a final result. In respiration, glucose is A, CO2 and H2O are the final results of the metabolic pathways that involve several tens of reactions. Metabolic pathway that will work and the speed is controlled by the cell lines with the help of enzymes (biokatalisator). Usually the enzyme accelerates the reaction with a speed between 108 and 1020. Enzymes work more effectively 108 to 109 compared with the conventional catalyst. 

In addition the enzyme is more specific than an organic or organic catalyst in the reaction dikatalisisnya artificial. The advantages of this enzyme is followed by an enzyme deficiencies is a large protein molecule and its constituent requires a certain amount of energy.

 

Enzymes Within Cells

 

Enzymes are not mixed evenly throughout the cell, but contained in the compartments. Enzymes contained in the chloroplast for photosynthesis; to respiration contained mainly in the mitochondria are partly contained in the cytosol. Enzymes for the synthesis of DNA, RNA and mitosis contained in the core. 

Grouping of enzymes in the compartment increases the efficiency of the processes of secular because of two things: (1) help ensure that sufficient concentrations of reactants in the enzyme, (2) help ensure that one compound is directed into the required results and are not diverted to other lines by the action of the enzyme other competing and also can work on compounds that anywhere else in the cell. But the grouping of enzymes in these compartments are not absolute as the membrane that surrounds the chloroplast allowing some sugar phosphates generated out photosynthesis. The compounds were then by a number outside the chloroplast enzyme involved in cell wall synthesis and respiration are essential for growth and maintenance of plants.

 

Properties of Enzymes

The properties of the enzyme are as follows: (1) enzyme is active in very small quantities. In biochemical reactions only a small amount of enzyme required to convert a large number of substrates into the results, (2) enzyme is not affected by the reaction dikatalisisnya in stable condition, due to the nature of the enzyme activity of proteins, among others influenced by pH and temperature. At the optimum conditions are not considered an enzyme is relatively unstable compound and is influenced by the reaction dikatalisisnya, (3) although the enzyme accelerates the completion of a reaction, the enzyme does not affect the balance of the reaction. Without the enzyme reaction can be commonly found behind the living system towards equilibrium takes place at a very slow pace. An enzyme that will generate the balance of the reaction at higher speeds, (4) job-specific enzyme catalysis. The enzyme showed specificity for the reaction dikatalisisnya. An enzyme that catalyzes a reaction will not catalyze the reaction of others

enzyme inhibitor

Many foreign substrates inhibit the effect of enzyme catalysis. Some of it is an organic compound (some metal cations) and a few more organic compounds. Both compounds were classified as inhibitors or non-competitive based on its influence on the substrate.
Competitive inhibitors usually have a structure similar to the substrate, so as to compete for the enzyme active site. The concentration of enzyme molecules which effectively reduced so that the reaction rate decreases. The addition of more of the original substrate can overcome the influence of a competitive inhibitor.
Examples of competitive inhibitor is competitive inhibition of succinate dehydrogenase by malonate anion. Succinate dehydrogenase is a class of enzymes that mengkatalisi citric acid and fats in the mitochondria. This enzyme is the release of two or three hydrogen atoms of the succinate, the methylene group (-CH2-). Succinate dehydrogenase is inhibited by malonate of succinic resemble because both have two carboxyl groups-containing ions at pH 7.0, but only differ in the three carbon atoms. However, malonate is not terdehidrogenasi by succinate dehydrogenase, malonate only occupy the enzyme active side and lock it so that it can not work on the substrate normal
Non-competitive inhibitors do not have a structure similar to the substrate and enzyme inhibitor complexes formed at a place outside the enzyme active site. Inhibitors cause changes in the structure of the enzyme substrate so that although the original ": bind to the enzyme, catalysis can not take place. For example, cyanide combines with metal ions such as copper ions of certain enzymes of the cytochrome oxidase enzyme activity was inhibited.

Mechanism of Enzyme

How does an enzyme speed up a reaction? Perhaps this question can be answered by describing the events that occurred, if a compound A (substrate) spontaneously converted into compound B (outcome), initially without enzymes and with enzymes

In a number of molecules of compound A at a given temperature there is an average kinetic energy of certain. 
Although most molecules have an average kinetic energy, some molecules have higher kinetic energy and lower than the average kinetic energy, because the molecules collide. These molecules are called molecular "energy rich" and "energy poor". Due to changes in AB spontaneous reaction, the average kinetic energy of molecules A higher than average kinetic energy of molecules B. But only the molecules A rich energy is able to react and converted to molecules B. Therefore, only a few molecules at a certain time, as a result of collisions of molecules that can reach the level of energy needed to be able to react. Energy above the average it takes A to react can be converted into B is called the activation energy. B can also be converted into A, but the activation energy for reaction B A higher because of lower energy state B compared with A.The enzyme will lower the activation energy of a reaction. If the activation energy for the reaction is low, more molecules of A (substrate) can react than without the enzyme. Enzymes increase the overall reaction rate without changing the reaction temperature. 
During the passage of the reaction, while the enzyme and substrate combine to form enzyme-substrate complex. Enzyme-substrate complex was first hypothesized by Fischer, who estimates that between enzyme and substrate occurs unity rigid like a key and the key (Figure 23). The substrate is a key complement to the enzyme or the shape of keys. Parts of the enzyme substrate combination is called the active site.If the complex enzyme-substrate complex is formed, is activated to form the reaction results. Once formed, the results are no longer in accordance with temapt active and released and the active site ready to accept another substrate molecule. 
In contrast to the rigid arrangement of the active site, Koshland estimate that the enzyme and its active site structure that is physically more flexible than had been described beforehand. Koshland describe the dynamic interactions that occur between the enzyme and substrate. If the substrate combines with the enzyme, substrate induces changes in the structure (confirmation) so that the function of the enzyme active site catalysis of the enzyme take place very effectively. This reasoning is known as the hypothesis of "induced fit" (hypothesis corresponding reduced). In some circumstances, the structure of the substrate molecule also changes during the induced fit, so the enzyme-substrate complex more functional

Cofactor, activator, Cluster Prosthetics and Coenzyme

Many of the enzyme for its activity requires the non-protein components called cofactors. Unlike enzymes, cofactors that are stable at relatively high temperatures and remain unchanged at the end of a reaction. Can be divided into three cofactors, namely: an organic ions (activators), prosthetic groups and coenzymes. Many organic molecules, some are related to vitamin, acts as a cofactor. Cofactor molecule will relate closely to the enzyme (as in gugs prosthetic), or only weakly associated with an enzyme such as the coenzyme. In both circumstances, the cofactor acts as a carrier molecule clusters of atoms, single atoms or electrons to be transferred from one place to another in a single metabolic pathway.

a. Inorganic Ions as Enzyme Activators

Activators typically bind weakly with an enzyme. Many of the enzymes associated with glycolysis require metals as activators. Some metals are known to be activators of the enzyme system is Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ca, K, and Co. 
b. Cluster Prosthetics 
Prosthetic group binds tightly to the enzyme (protein) by covalent bonding. Organic compounds such that the integrated help function misalanya enzyme catalysis, FAD, FMN, and Biotin. For example, FAD-containing riboflavin (vitamin B2), which is part of FAD which receives a hydrogen atom.Several enzymes have a prosthetic group containing metal ions (eg iron or copper in cytochrome oxidase). Prosthetic group of cytochromes act as electron carriers. Upon receipt of the electron, the iron reduced to Fe2 +, releasing electrons at the iron oxidized to Fe 3 +. 
 c. Coenzyme

Many enzymes require a prosthetic group has no other organic compounds called coenzymes for its activity. Coenzyme is not firmly attached to the protein enzyme. Examples of coenzymes are NAD, NADP, coenzyme A and ATP. For example, NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) derived from vitamin nicotinic acid present in the form of reduced and oxidized. In the oxidized state function in catalysis as a hydrogen acceptor is necessary enzyme in plants (and animals).

Plant Physiology

Physiology is a branch of biology that studies the activities and functions of an organism to maintain and organize their lives.Studying the physiology of plants will provide a broad overview and insight on many things that occur in plants. Hundreds and even thousands of chemical reactions going on inside every living cell occurred relatively quickly, transform and produce materials that are essential for plant growth and development.Basically, plant physiology is the study of life processes, activities, life, and symptoms of plant life. Science of physiology has aligned to the science of chemistry, physics, mathematics and science are very large role in discussing the biological principles in modern physiology. With the above knowledge base will be able to understand the various processes of life, life activity, and the symptoms exhibited by living plants or crops.Living organisms can consist of a single cell (uniselluler) or consist of many cells (multiselluler). Cells are the smallest basic unit of every living organism. Thus, the study of plant physiology must be at the start of the cell.An organism is said to live when do two characteristics of life processes: the process of metabolism and eternities (preservation or sustainability). Metabolic process is a process that can be identified as living machines. The process of changing metabolic substances passive to active substances or a process that converts the substances or elements of inorganic substances or organic compounds constituent cells of living organisms including plants. Metabolic process consisting of: nutrition, absorption, and translocation as well as the synthesis and turnover or breakdown, is in the process of conservation is the process that enables living organisms to maintain his generation. Immortality includes several major process of reproduction, adaptation, and control.Cell as the smallest components of living organisms to both characterize the process, because the cells contain protoplasm site of metabolic activity and the core (nucleus) site of a variety of conservation activities. In higher organisms such as plants that are multiselluler where the cells organized into tissues and organs, the division of tasks having to do activities. Each different cells often have a different structure and function. Between structure and function have a very close relationship in conducting various activities of life among cells, tissues and organs that take place in an organized manner.